Framework of Reference for Tibetan Buddhist Translation
Standards in Curriculum Requirements & Skill Assessment for Translators of Tibetan Buddhism
Overview
Esukhia’s Translation Training Program is inspired by the traditional Pandita-Lotsawa collaborative team. Its goal is to foster deep collaboration between western translators and Tibetan academics—especially by promoting Tibetan as a working language. In addition, it seeks to synthesize this traditional model with modern frameworks for professional translation training.
Modern translation training requires a wide range of interdisciplinary language skills; while different programs divide these skills differently, the theoretical underpinnings are often quite similar. For example, they will generally include training in the source language (also called the second language, or L2); training in the target language (the first language, or L1); and training in domain-specific knowledge, or an area of specialization.
Beyond those broader fields, students will also be expected to train in other relevant subjects such as intercultural communication, translation theory and text analysis, and translation technology. For example:
The ISO (International Organization for Standardization) divides these skills—or competences—into six areas:
- Translation competence: the ability to translate content in accordance with 5.3.1, including the ability to address the problems of language content comprehension and language content production and the ability to render the target language content in accordance with the client-TSP agreement and other project specifications.
- Linguistic & textual competence in the source language & the target language: the ability to understand the source language, fluency in the target language, and general or specialized knowledge of text-type conventions. This linguistic and textual competence includes the ability to apply this knowledge when producing translation or other target language content.
- Competence in research, information acquisition, & processing: the ability to efficiently acquire the additional linguistic and specialized knowledge necessary to understand the source language content and to produce the target language content. Research competence also requires experience in the use of research tools and the ability to develop suitable strategies for the efficient use of the information sources available.
- Cultural competence: ability to make use of information on the behavioural standards, up-to-date terminology, value systems, and locale that characterize both source and target language cultures.
- Technical competence: the knowledge, abilities, and skills required to perform the technical tasks in the translation process by employing technical resources including the tools and IT systems that support the whole translation process.
- Domain competence: the ability to understand content produced in the source language and to reproduce it in the target language using the appropriate style and terminology.
For Esukhia’s TTP, a program specific to concerns of Tibetan language and Buddhism, we have included all of these necessary skills, but organized them as follows:
-
Tibetan
a. Language & culture in the SL (source language) / L2 (second language), and—for our purposes—the WL (working language)
b. Buddhist Phil, Reli, & Lit – the domain-specific expertise for the SL (source language) -
Mother Tongue
a. Language & culture in the TL (target language) / L1 (first language)
b. Text Analysis – the systematic study of texts & their components
c. L1 Phil, Reli, & Lit – the domain-specific expertise for the TL (target language) -
Translation Training
a. Translation Studies – the theory & practice of moving between the SL and the TL
b. Translation Technology – CAT tools, TM, etc.
c. Intercultural Communication – communicative processes across cultures & social groups -
Linguistics & Research Methods
a. Linguistics – the scientific study of language
b. Research Methods – the research skills specific to Buddhist texts
1 SL Tibetan language skills
1a Language & Culture
The modern translator needs the following skills: 1) oral skills for a foundation in pragmatic, cultural, and prosodic features of the language, alongside communicative competence for collaborating with native-speaking scholars; 2) literary skills for reading comprehension of source texts, along with communicating—via writing—with modern speakers.
For a broad view of some tangible outcomes, this table details a sample progression in Tibetan language skills that a translator-training student might take over a 5-year program in CEFR level, active vocabulary, and hours of study accumulated:
| CEFR | Vocab | Hours | Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| B2 | 6,000 | 3,300 | Year 5 |
| B1+ | 4,500 | 2,640 | Year 4 |
| B1 | 3,000 | 1,980 | Year 3 |
| A2+ | 1,950 | 1,320 | Year 2 |
| A1+ | 1,200 | 660 | Year 1 |
Specifically, following such a program would result in the following proficiencies on a year-by-year basis:
| Year | Skill | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Speaking | oral production limited to occasional, isolated words; can form simple, formulaic phrases; can ask basic question/give basic responses |
| Listening | listening comprehension limited to occasional, isolated words; able to understand simple statements or questions, but only when spoken slowly, or upon multiple repetitions, in clearly-defined contexts | |
| Writing | literary production limited to occasional, isolated words; traditional Tibetan spelling skills; can reproduce very basic sentences | |
| Reading | able to “decode” (turn symbols into sounds), but vocab levels limit reading comprehension; can read simplified texts slowly | |
| Spoken interaction | may be able to ask questions or make statements with reasonable accuracy, but only with memorized utterances or formulae | |
| 2 | Speaking | able to use questions and answers for simple topics within a limited level of experience |
| Listening | able to understand basic questions and speech, when guided by aids such as slower speech or repetition | |
| Writing | able to write on simple topics within a limited level of experience; has grasp of basic grammar | |
| Reading | able to understand basic text, when guided by aids such as repetition, extended context, or other resources | |
| Spoken interaction | able to communicate on basic topics within a limited level | |
| 3 | Speaking | has an accent which, though often quite faulty, is intelligible; can speak about current events, work, family, and autobiographical information |
| Listening | can get the gist of most conversations on non-technical subjects (i.e. topics which require no specialized knowledge), and has a speaking vocabulary sufficient to respond simply with some circumlocutions | |
| Writing | can write basic text about current events, work, family, and autobiographical information | |
| Reading | can get the gist of most low-level texts on non-technical subjects (i.e. children’s literature or graded texts); can read general texts with assistance, such as newspapers and transcriptions of Buddhist teachings | |
| Spoken interaction | able to satisfy routine social demands; can handle most basic social situations w/ confidence, including introductions and casual conversations | |
| 4 | Speaking | able to speak the language with sufficient structural accuracy and vocabulary; has a general vocabulary which is broad enough that he or she rarely has to search for a word; has a good control of grammar |
| Listening | has comprehension which is quite complete for a normal rate of speech | |
| Writing | able to write the language with sufficient structural accuracy and vocabulary; has a general vocabulary which is relatively broad; has a good control of grammar | |
| Reading | has comprehension which is quite complete when reading texts where the subject matter is known; especially given time or study of specialized vocabulary, able to read most texts | |
| Spoken interaction | can interact on particular interests or special fields with reasonable ease; able to participate effectively in most conversations on practical, social, and professional topics | |
| 5 | Speaking | able to use the language fluently and accurately on all levels and as normally pertinent to professional needs; makes only quite rare and minor errors of pronunciation and grammar |
| Listening | can understand and participate in any conversations within the range of own personal and professional experience with a high degree of fluency and precision of vocabulary | |
| Writing | able to use the written language fluently and accurately on all levels and as normally pertinent to professional needs; makes only quite rare and minor errors of spelling and grammar | |
| Reading | can understand any texts within the range of own personal and professional experience with a high degree of fluency and precision of vocabulary | |
| Spoken interaction | would rarely be taken for a native speaker, but can respond appropriately even in unfamiliar grounds or situations | |
| 6+ | Speaking | has a speaking proficiency equivalent to that of an educated native speaker |
| Listening | has listening proficiency such equivalent to that of an educated native speaker | |
| Writing | has a writing proficiency equivalent to that of an educated native speaker | |
| Reading | has reading proficiency such equivalent to that of an educated native speaker | |
| Spoken interaction | has complete fluency in the language, such that communication on all levels is fully accepted by educated native speakers in all of its features, including breadth of vocabulary and idiom, colloquialisms, and pertinent cultural references |
1b Buddhism
| Year | Skill | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Buddhism | has a general knowledge of Buddhism and a core vocabulary (in Tibetan); has introductory knowledge in mind-training and simplified sutra / canonical texts (including the 1,000 most frequent words of the Buddhist Canon) |
| 2 | Buddhism | has a basic feel for Buddhist literature (eg 37 practices); is continuing to develop reading skills in simplified canonical texts; has basic listening comprehension of level-appropriate lectures about Buddhism |
| 3 | Buddhism | has introductory knowledge of Buddhist philosophy (in Tibetan); has continued to develop reading comprehension skills of canonical texts and Buddhist literature (eg Treasury of Knowledge) |
| 4 | Buddhism | has introductory knowledge of the history of Buddhism, the Buddhist tenets, Madhyamaka, Prajnaparamita, Abhidharma, and so on; is able to understand texts written on a familiar topic with minimal assistance; discuss topics on content and terminology; put forward structured arguments about specific points |
| 5 | Buddhism | has knowledge of Buddhist ethics, metaphysics, and meditation practices; is able to pick up and understand familiar texts with very little help; is able to understand explanations on new topics; is able to express their opinion on readings of texts and have conversations about the finer points of terminology and content |
| 6+ | Buddhism | has a wide-ranging familiarity of all aspects of Buddhist philosophy and religious practices (including, but not limited to, ethics, metaphysics, logic, debate, and meditation); is able to pick up and understand familiar texts; a high level of communicative skills; able to express their own comprehension of the text to a scholar for assessment and discussion; conversations about finer points in detail; understand literary devices; and express ideas with fluency & ease |
2 TL Mother tongue language skills
2a Language & Culture
| Year | Skill | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Literature | has a general knowledge of native literature, and is well-read in contemporary literature (prose, nonfiction) |
| Writing | has basic competence in writing (writes informally, in SMS, and/or formally, ie, essays, short stories, poetry) | |
| 2 | Literature | has reading experience in prose, poetry, and creative nonfiction |
| Writing | has basic skills in creative writing; basic research; argumentation | |
| 3 | Literature | has reading experience including informative nonfiction and technical literature |
| Writing | has moderate ability in creative, technical, and professional writing ability | |
| 4 | Literature | has further reading experience in genre; fiction, modern, nonfiction, prose |
| Writing | has high proficiency in creative, technical, and professional writing ability; practice in intralinguistic (L1-only) translation between styles and registers | |
| 5 | Literature | has reading experience in a range of historical literature (from Middle English to Early Modern L1 [or ‘Classical’, if applicable); has high proficiency in intralinguistic translation ability (from Middle L1 forms to Modern ones) |
| Writing | has professional ability in rhetoric and composition | |
| 6+ | Literature | is well-read in all relevant genres; can easily id aspects of text, like register, intent, audience, sociocultural / historical context, etc.; can apply “Text Analysis” to L1 literature |
| Writing | has writing expertise in a wide range of styles and registers for many kinds of audiences, both expert and general |
2b Text Analysis
| Year | Skill | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Systems Level | able to analyze L1 texts at the informational systems level (author biographical details, location, time period) |
| The Text | knows the theory behind discourse and register analysis (for L1 texts) | |
| Its Components | can analyze L1 text components in basic lexicon, message, and style | |
| 2 | Systems Level | able to analyze texts (L1 & level-appropriate L2) at the informational systems level (author biographical details, location, time period); able to analyze L1 texts at the contextual systems level (religious tradition, related texts, etc.) |
| The Text | able to do basic discourse and register analysis for L1 texts (in field, tenor, and mode) | |
| Its Components | proficiency analyzing L1 text in basic lexicon, message, and style; simple message for level-appropriate L2 | |
| 3 | Systems Level | able to analyze texts (L1 & level-appropriate L2) at the contextual systems level (religious tradition, related texts, etc.) and the informational; has the ability to analyze texts by broad cultural, sociopolitical, historical systems level (for L1) |
| The Text | can do intermediate-level discourse and register analysis for L1; beginning discourse analysis for level-appropriate L2 texts | |
| Its Components | able to analyze components like syntax, literary features, and presumed world knowledge for L1 texts; and lexicon and messages for level-appropriate L2 | |
| 4 | Systems Level | has the ability to analyze texts by broad cultural, sociopolitical, historical systems level (L1 & level-appropriate L2); able to analyze texts at any systems level, and discuss its place in time, its place and importance to its literary tradition, how it relates to other texts, authors, etc. in L1 |
| The Text | upper-intermediate level discourse and register analysis for L1; can analyze discourse and register for level-appropriate L2 | |
| Its Components | can analyze a wide range of components, from lexicon, message, and style, to linguistic features like syntax and conceptual metaphor (for L1 especially, and level-appropriate L2) | |
| 5 | Systems Level | able to analyze texts at any systems level, and discuss its place in time, its place and importance to its literary tradition, how it relates to other texts, authors, etc. (L1 & L2) |
| The Text | high proficiency in analyzing the text itself as a whole in discourse and register (field, tenor, and mode), for most L1 and L2 text | |
| Its Components | high proficiency in identifying components (lexicon, syntax, message, style, conceptual metaphors, presumed world knowledge, etc.) and their effects, for any L1 or L2 text | |
| 6+ | Systems Level | expert-level ability to analyze texts at any systems level, and discuss its place in time, its place and importance to its literary tradition, how it relates to other texts, authors, etc., on a wide range of features (for most L1 and L2 texts) |
| The Text | expertise in analyzing the text itself as a whole in discourse and register (field, tenor, and mode), for any L1 or L2 text | |
| Its Components | expertise in identifying components (lexicon, syntax, message, style, conceptual metaphors, presumed world knowledge, etc.) and their effects, for any L1 or L2 text |
2c Domain in L1
| Year | Skill | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Philosophy | knows basics of philosophy (schools, methods, history) in L1, and of L2 (studied in L1) |
| Religion | has basic knowledge of religious traditions of the world, especially of L1 and L2 (major figures, essential history, basic theology, practices, etc.) | |
| 2 | Philosophy | has knowledge of metaphysics and epistemology; skepticism and cynicism; early Greek and Indian philosophy (in L1); has basic readings in beginner-level L2 |
| Religion | has basic reading comprehension in religious text in beginner-level L2; able to read and discuss hagiography (graded, simplified, level-appropriate MLT) | |
| 3 | Philosophy | has knowledge of politics and ethics (in L1); has reading comprehension of basic philosophy in (graded) L2 |
| Religion | has reading comprehension of basic religion in (lower-intermediate graded) L2; able to read and discuss hagiography (graded, simplified, level-appropriate MLT and MCT) | |
| 4 | Philosophy | knows the basics of logic and debate (Aristotle and Tibetan dialectic); has intermediate comprehension in (graded) L2; can discuss intermediate phil in L2; advanced phil in L1 |
| Religion | has intermediate comprehension in (graded) L2; can discuss intermediate reli in L2; advanced reli in L1 | |
| 5 | Philosophy | has the ability to debate (Tibetan dialectic); has good knowledge of Aristotelian logic; can read ungraded texts in L2 (with study aid); advanced discussion in L1 and L2 |
| Religion | has upper-intermediate / advanced reading comprehension in religion for L2 (like hagiography, sutra, commentary, etc.); advanced discussion in L1 and L2 | |
| 6+ | Philosophy | has advanced abilities in reading, discussing, debating, and writing in philosophy in both L1 & L2; is able to summarize to / from both L1 and L2 across languages |
| Religion | has advanced abilities in reading, discussing, debating, and writing in religion in both L1 & L2; is able to summarize to / from both L1 and L2 across languages |
3 Translation & Intercultural Communication
| Year | Skill | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Intercultural Communication | naturally able to communicate via speech or writing on a variety of general topics in L1; though competency is low in L2, able to understand the basic theory (that cultures communicate differently) |
| General Translation | is a ‘natural translator’ (has some sense of what ‘translation’ is, and does it naturally, in some shape or form); has read basic translation theory | |
| Technology | has basic computer skills (internet browsing; file systems and folder hierarchies; Google suite; etc.); able to use video conferencing and other social media and common tech tools | |
| 2 | Intercultural Communication | able to judge the appropriateness of medium of communication (ie, oral versus written) for basic communication contexts in L2; can make judgments of register and tone in L1 |
| General Translation | begins ‘natural translation’ as a matter of course (writing in the L2); able to translate intra linguistically in L1 (between styles, registers, or even dialects) | |
| Technology | is able to conduct online searches; has access experience tech-based resources (dictionaries, etc.) | |
| 3 | Intercultural Communication | able to make judgments of formality and informality in basic word choice for L2; able to identify culturally-based phrases (ie, phatic language, conceptual metaphor, etc.) in the L1 |
| General Translation | has an understanding of strategies and procedures (ie, the ‘process’) of translation; can identify problems and brainstorm solutions; give and receive feedback; and has working understanding of theories of equivalence, “literalness”, functional language, etc. | |
| Technology | has introductory skills in at least one CAT tool; is aware of (and able to access) tech-based resources; has basic knowledge of regex and advanced options for searches; can collaborate online | |
| 4 | Intercultural Communication | able to analyze intercultural interactions based on convergence, accommodation, and adaptation; increased capacity for recognizing register and tone in the L2 |
| General Translation | can successfully translate intra linguistically in the L2 (ie, from MST to MLT); has a strong foundation in modern translation theory and practice | |
| Technology | is proficient in at least one CAT tool, and basic skills in others; is proficient (and comfortable) accessing other tech-based resources | |
| 5 | Intercultural Communication | able to communicate cross-culturally with many speakers from the L2 (especially in subjects of expertise); has ability to translate metaphor, idiomatic, and other culture-specific language across domains of expertise; able to make appropriate and effective judgments in language use |
| General Translation | can translate a wide range of texts from multiple perspectives; has professional ability in strategies and procedures for translation; knows how to make choices during the translation process based on considerations of equivalency, functionalism, etc. | |
| Technology | has professional ability in at least one CAT tool (computer assisted translation) and other tech-based resources (MT, online dictionaries, etc.) | |
| 6+ | Intercultural Communication | able to communicate naturally and easily with many people of many backgrounds, for a range of purposes, on a wide range of specific topics, via both speech and writing; able to apply knowledge of L1 & L2 cultures to translate conceptual metaphor, idiomatic / phatic / pragmatic language, and literary devices cross-linguistically |
| General Translation | can translate any given text in any given way (ie, for different audiences, in different styles or registers, etc.); has expertise in strategies and procedures for translation; has a clear and comprehensive understanding of what choices they make during the translation process, and why they are making them | |
| Technology | fully “fluent” in multiple CAT platforms, existing Machine Translation, and other tech-based resources |
4 Linguistics & Research Methods
| Year | Skill | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | General Linguistics | has a traditional, school-based understanding of basic (prescriptive) grammar; knows the basics of linguistics (descriptivist perspective, scientific investigation of language, etc.) |
| Applied Linguistics | has practical-level knowledge of language acquisition and education (orientation and methods for learning in the L2 side of the program) | |
| Research Methods | has a general knowledge of the scientific method; how to search for references; and how to make citations for a scholarly work | |
| 2 | General Linguistics | is well-versed on the linguistics of language acquisition, sociolinguistics, and language change (especially as it pertains to the Tibetan language-learning experience) |
| Applied Linguistics | knows how language education and pragmatics are applied to the Tibetan language-learning context | |
| Research Methods | has an understanding of how principles of the scientific method are applied in the humanities; has an introductory knowledge of the history of texts and manuscripts | |
| 3 | General Linguistics | has knowledge of standard languages (& their ideologies), as well as language structures (phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, syntax, and context); grammar, semantics, and pragmatics; is able to analyze L1 in regards to those features |
| Applied Linguistics | has knowledge of NLP and corpus linguistics; is able to use basic corpus analysis tools (like Antconc) for concordancing, frequency lists, word searches, collocations, etc. | |
| Research Methods | has an introductory knowledge of critical editions and scholarly apparatus; has an introductory understanding of cross-linguistic and cross-textual analysis, esp. as applied to Buddhist text studies | |
| 4 | General Linguistics | has knowledge of historical, comparative linguistics (including its application for Sino-Tibetan, esp. Old Tibetan, and Indo-European, esp. Sanskrit) |
| Applied Linguistics | has knowledge of stylistics (and its relationship to literary and text analysis); has high proficiency in using corpus analysis as a tool for text analysis and the translation process | |
| Research Methods | is familiar with the major digital repositories for Tibetan Buddhist literature, and is able to use them effectively to find the texts or information they need; has practical knowledge of variations across editions and how that informs translation | |
| 5 | General Linguistics | has knowledge of semiotics; has research and reading capacity in linguistics across the major fields; able to apply knowledge of second language acquisition, linguistics analysis, and corpus analysis broadly to L2 Tibetan varieties |
| Applied Linguistics | knowledge of lexicography; resource analysis for L2; able to apply online searches, linguistics knowledge, and other skills in the translation process to achieve specific goals | |
| Research Methods | has a professional ability to conduct historical research for Buddhist texts; is able to synthesize traditional and modern research methods to produce scholarly work (where appropriate); can collaborate with Tibetan academics on issues of texts, their histories, and contents | |
| 6+ | General Linguistics | is well-read in linguistics literature, both general and specific to L2 Tibetan and L1; when a research question comes up, able to find the relevant sources |
| Applied Linguistics | expertise in applied linguistics for Tibetan source text translation (ie, using corpus analysis for collocation, semantic prosody, conceptual metaphor, or other linguistic features, etc.) | |
| Research Methods | has a expertise in conducting historical research for Buddhist texts; is able to synthesize traditional and modern research methods to produce scholarly work (where appropriate); can collaborate, in whatever detail necessary, with Tibetan academics on issues of texts, their histories, and contents |